Anorexia as Eating Disorder

Anorexia as Eating Disorder Abstract Significant amount of time has been dedicated by researchers in the study of anorexia, an eating disorder. Nonetheless, extensive data that is so far available has not been fully utilized towards combating this disorder. It is against this background that the number of anorexia patients across the world has continued to raise thereby negating available treatment methods.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Anorexia as Eating Disorder specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Initially, the condition was restricted among western population but the very western standards of beauty have spread to other parts of the world leading to rapid spread of the disorder. This review will explore aspects of anorexia nervosa by tracing its historical background, possible causes, prevalence rate as well as treatment. Introduction Types of eating disorders As society continues to promote thin body mentality to be the ideal of beauty, Att ia and Welsh observe that there is increasing number of people who are developing anorexia as they become more aware of their weight.[1] Most people are concerned about their body weight at some point in life. However, according to the above authors, those who develop eating disorders tend to take their concerns to the extreme. Abnormal eating habits are a threat to a person’s well being and some extremities can cause death. Research over the past few years, has shown that there has been an increase in the number of people suffering from eating disorders especially anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. The above disorders are more prevalent in young women and adolescents. Among the general population, it is estimated that about five million people will show signs of at least one type of the above disorders. Three major types of eating disorders have been identified. The first and the most common type is anorexia nervosa. Individuals who suffer from this disorder are have a di storted view of their body image. Despite some of them being extremely underweight, they will always have feelings of being overweight. These individuals will refuse to eat but will continue to exercise compulsively with some starving themselves to death. The second type is bulimia nervosa which until recently has always been confused with anorexia nervosa. These individuals unlike the one suffering from anorexia nervosa will consume large quantity of food although they feel guilty about it. The affected person will perform the above acts because they feel ashamed and disgusted of the binging act. Once they get rid of their stomachs’ contents, tension and negative emotions dissipate. Many scholars have dedicated their time to study anorexia. However, due to limitation in scope, the rest of the chapter will explore anorexia nervosa by tracing the historical background of the condition, reviewing prevalence of the disorder in terms of gender, culture and geographical background as well as the causes and the current treatment methods. Understanding anorexia nervosa According to Dare, anorexia has been associated with loss of appetite and does not occur due to physical sickness but mostly triggered by perception of the mind.[2] An individual has a similar appetite with a normal healthy person but they tend to suppress it by either eating very little or avoiding eating for a prolonged period of time. It is against this reason that psychologists view this condition as life threatening if left untreated.[3]Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The motivating factor that makes the patient to lose appetite at the sight of food is their obsession to lose weight. Such people are very conscious of their body image, and they always strive to achieve the ideal slim body. The above individuals will deliberately starve themselves to maintain the ideal thin bo dy. In addition, they adopt a strict exercising schedule motivated by their intent fear to become fat. Historical perspective of anorexia nervosa Knowledge about the condition came into the lime light in the late 18th century, when two separate physicians; Charles Lesegue and William Gull researched on anorexia nervosa. The two have been regarded as pioneer researchers in this particular filed. At the initial stages, several names were put forward but, anorexia nervosa came to be widely accepted eventually. Many other researchers such as Hilde Bruch, Arthur Crisp among other have come forward, and their works have contributed into the research by coming up with treatment plans. Despite the numerous studies into the condition, there is lack of adequate technological innovation as far as treatment is concerned. Hence, it has become a concern among contemporary physician researchers. The development of anorexia disorder can be traced back to several cultures from ancient times. During this particular time, prolonged fasting was observed but usually it was for religious reasons. The fast was common among the Greek and Egyptian cultures, but, no evidence has been found to show the fasting was as a result of the disorder. A close resemblance of the disorder in ancient times was that which developed among people who practiced eastern religions. As Steiner documents, some Eastern religious beliefs led to self starvation as people sought spiritual fulfillment.[4]Self starvation is regarded as one of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa today. Although a slight similarity of ancient times self starvation can be compared with modern day anorexia nervosa, the motivating factors are very different. The ancient people practiced self starvation mainly for religious reasons, but not because they feared getting fat as it evident today. Lack of a direct link between ancient and modern day disorder has made development of deep research in this disorder to be limited in scope.[5] The disorder has always been viewed from a social perspective, and earlier researchers have ignored the medial aspect of it.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Anorexia as Eating Disorder specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Initially, anorexia was viewed as a social condition, that affected young women and girls from the high-class circles, and it was viewed as their fashion trend. For this reason, scholars saw the disorder as a pass time activity, which did not have any medical effects. It was not until later when the disorder was given attention by the medial experts when serious medial implications started to be discovered. Prevalence of anorexia nervosa disorder The prevalence of the disorder affects people of both gender types. It can affect individuals of any age. However, women are more predisposed to the disorder as compared to men. Statistics have identified the ratio to be one out of ten men. Scholars say the incid ences of the disorder are increasing day by day, and we might have new statistical out look in the future. The numerous studies conducted show the disorder is more prevalent among the population from the industrialized nations. Despite the industrialized nations having abundant-food supply, the population especially the females shy away from eating to maintain the slim image, which is considered to be attractive. The disorder has been found to be common in the western countries such as United Kingdom, USA, Canada and other highly industrialized nations. Studies in the US show that 0.5 to 1 % of females in the US are likely to develop the disorder. In United Kingdom, an estimated 0.7 % to 1.2% females are at high risk of developing anorexia. However, research of the spread of the disorders in African countries is very limited; hence it may not be easy to hypothesize prevalence rate in those areas due to limited research conducted in the past. The results of such studies are hard to g eneralize across African and other minority cultures. The results of the above studies showed very minimal cases of the anorexia nervosa. Indeed, Rumney expounds that the low level of prevalence rate is a clear indication that cultural factors contribute in the development of anorexia nervosa. Previous studies have also indicated that the disorder is common among post -puberty adults. However, in recent years, isolated cases have been identified among children as young as 7 years.[6] In addition, more recent studies have noted that the disorder is gaining momentum among pre-puberty individuals.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This information has led scholars today to agree that the disorder begins in mid and late adolescence. When the disorder develops at this age, prognosis is always better as compared to those who develop it past the age of 40 years. The disorder at rare times can affect order adults as life stresses catches up with them. Individuals who develop the disorder do so when they start perceiving in their mind that they are overweight. When such a person begins to diet, he/she does not notice when the weight falls. They will thus continue to diet and exercise intensively, and the habit turns into an obsession. Such people will do anything to lose weight, and the reason they undertake self starvation measures is because they see weight gain as a sign that they have failed. Eventually, if left untreated the disorder can lead to fatality as the individuals continue to lose weight beyond the required healthy weight for their age and height. Anorexia disorder prognosis is good when diagnosed at early stages. Possible Causes of anorexia nervosa Researchers have been interested to know what causes the anorexia nervosa disorder. Further, they have been interested to know the contributing factors that lead to the development of the disorder. However, it is difficult to determine the specific causes of the disorder, and most of the causes put forward are hypothetical. Scholars believe that anorexia nervosa can be attributed to a combination of factors, ranging from environmental, cultural, biological and psychological. Biological causes Researchers of anorexia disorder through numerous experiments have come across evidence, that some people could be genetically predisposed than others to develop the disorder. The probability of a person whose close family member suffered from an eating disorder, to get anorexia nervosa is higher than for a person whose family has not history of eating disorder. Statistics has shown that the probability is 10 times higher, and more than 50 % of anorexia nervosa cases can be linked to the hereditary factor.[7] Although numerous experiments have been conducted, the researchers have failed to provide a clear explanation of how biological factors are directly related to the eating disorder. However, research has been success as researchers have discovered specific chromosomes, which are directly linked to the disorder. The specific chromosomes identified are known to increase susceptibility to the eating disorders; anorexia nervosa and others. Another biological factor that can be linked with the increased risk to the disorder has to do with the brain abnormal biochemical make up. The abnormal biochemical make up is related with the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) which regulates a person mood, stress and appetite. The gland releases certain neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine, which are responsible for mood regulation. When the release of the above neurotransmitters is reduced, such a pe rson is likely to develop the disorder. The above evidence shows that abnormal biochemical make up which is biological factor can be attributed to the eating disorder. Cultural factors Cultural beliefs and attitude factors can also be linked to the development of anorexia nervosa disorder, and other eating disorders. The rates of the disorders vary from one race or ethnic group to the other, and the dimension or extent changes with time as cultures evolve. So many studies have concentrated their researches among people within the western culture.[8] However, extensive research needs to be done all over the world to demonstrate the spread of the disorder across all cultures. A cultural factor that has contributed to the development of the disorder originates from the western culture, where a thin body is viewed as the ideal. This idealization, which receives much attention through the numerous mass media, has been listed as a significant cultural factor that leads to the development of the disorder. The media are powerful tool when it comes to influencing peoples’ attitudes towards a particular topic. The media are to blame for the widespread anorexia disorder as they portray slim body as the measure of attractiveness. Although eating disorders can be traced back in history, the massive shift to the view that slim is ideal has emerged recently as promotions of slim body increases. The evidence that today men and women are not satisfied with a big body is evident from the numerous diet articles, diet medication and the like. A further elaboration on the aspect of culture is that which explains the role of changing cultures to the change of development of anorexia nervosa, as well as the changing prevalence. Several proposals have been put forward to classify anorexia as cultural-change syndrome rather than a cultural specific syndrome as many tend to believe.[9] This proposal cites studies done among the immigrants which show that though the disorder is r are, it is gaining momentum, as the immigrants culture change because of interaction with the host culture. In addition, rare cases of the disorder are being reported in less developed world since the process of industrialization brings with it changes in culture. As the world become a global village, the interaction and transfer of cultural values is inevitable; hence anorexia will be a cultural-changing syndrome in the future. The reason why anorexia disorder is being transferred from the western to other world cultures is because the western culture has always been viewed as ideal. The media have played a great role in communication the values of the western culture to other parts of the world and hence eroding traditional values especially among the young people. Apart from the idealization of slim body among the western culture, another cultural force which has caused the widespread occurrence of the disorder is identified.[10] In the recent decades, the role of women in societ y has taken a great shift. Several feminist theorists have associated the rapid development of eating disorder with the changing roles of women in society especially in western cultures.[11] Feminists theorists have hypothesized that the pressures placed on today’s woman will increase their vulnerability to eating disorders. A historical perceptive of eating disorders to support the hypothesis, is that which shows that eating disorders among women develop, when they are presented with many opportunities. However, the available opportunity has to be combined with absolute freedom for such a woman to develop anorexia nervosa. Lack of freedom is what makes wealthy women in Muslim cultures to shy away from self starvation since they live restricted lifestyles. Today woman is pushed to be a high achiever; at the same time, society expects her to maintain her femininity and attractiveness. The anorexia disorders among females come about as they try to balance the demand by society to be both successful and attractive. Psychological causes Studies to link the development of anorexia disorder and psychological factors received much attention in the 20th century. The early theorists focused their attention on studying how person unconscious sexuality conflicts contributed to the development of the disorder. They also wanted to find out the link between adolescent rebellion and regression to the oral stage of development to the anorexia nervosa. Similarly, earlier psychologists also associated the disorder with the advent of object relations theory.[12] The above theory focuses on how a parent relation with an infant affects the personality development of an individual. The modern-day psychologists have developed a theory which shows anorexia disorder to be caused by emotional disturbances. The variables of emotional, logical and stimuli come into play in an attempt to classify anorexia as an emotional disorder. According to the anorexia nervosa theory, anorexia, which resides on the emotional side of the human brain, can occur whenever the emotional elements are disturbed. The disorder is said to develop during mental growth where one of the key points is affected. The theory postulates that the adolescence stage of growth is the most likely point, when the disorder will develop. This is because during adolescence an individual is developing a sense of self, and most of the times adolescents are not able to handle any form of criticism positively.[13] During this search of identity stage, criticism carries a lot of weight and the person will try to distance themselves from it by manipulating the external environment to avoid further criticism. This escapism behavior suppresses the internal being and the person expresses though unconsciously the preferred emotional image. When prolonged, exposure of the internal self to suppression will eventually lead to mental segregation presented as anorexia nervosa. Dare expounds that it is a form of m ental illness that originates from emotional. Hence, an individual is always concerned with peoples perception of his/her image.[14] Family therapists have also contributed to debate on how psychological factors associated with family relations, lead to the development of anorexia nervosa disorder.[15] The said therapists have tried to demonstrate the relationship between dysfunctional family relationships and broken down family interaction bonds, with the development of anorexia nervosa. Individuals whose mothers are intrusive, overprotective and exhibit perfectionists’ characteristics are likely to develop anorexia disorder. In addition, if ones’ father is passive, withdraw, moody or ineffective the probability for such an individual to develop anorexia nervosa is increased. Personality traits have also been linked with the development of the anorexia nervosa disorder. The individuals have been cited to have low self esteem, extreme fear of becoming fat and feeling o f helplessness in life.[16] The individuals are usually people who are high performers in whatever sector they are in life, but their tendency of perfectionism is what compels them to develop the disorder. Such people are always concerned with peoples’ opinion about them, and always strive to portray a perfect picture.[17] The see the tendency to control their weight as advantageous in gaining peoples approval. It is very hard to know that individuals have a problem as they tend to keep their feelings to themselves, and rarely show rebellious behavior. Danger signs Individuals who are developing anorexia nervosa disorder are likely to use weight reduction drugs during the initial stages of the obsession. Other behavioral signs have been identified by researchers. The individuals will start by cutting back on the portion of food they are used to take previously. The individuals will also exhibit an obsessive interest in exercises, and will spend every opportunity exercising. T hose with the bulimia nervosa disorder will be seen going to the bathroom right after they take any meals.[18] Those who suffer from anorexia nervosa will also avoid gathering where food is likely to be served as they do not want to be forced to eat under the circumstances. The above behaviors affect the body negatively and the patients start showing signs of poor health. The most initial symptom associated with anorexia nervosa is gradual but constant weight loss. Initially, the weight loss is not harmful to the body especially if the patient was overweight.[19] At the later stage as the patient increases weigh losing exercises, the individual will start complaining about stomach problems accompanied by constipation diarrhea. As days goes by, the patient becomes weaker and weaker as the energy reserves are dangerously utilized by the body. Dizziness may also be a common complaint, and at times, the patient may experience fainting episodes. If left untreated, the symptoms continue t o appear which might lead to death.[20] Conclusion Eating disorders are very common problem among the population. Anorexia nervosa, which is one type of eating disorders, has become so common and if not watched more health problems are likely to arrive in the future. Researchers should put more effort to innovate on preventive and treatment measures of the condition. References Attia Evelyn, Walsh B. Timothy, 2007. â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa†. American Journal Psychiatry 164(2007): 1805-1810. Bell, Rudolph M. Holy anorexia. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Dare Chris, Isler Ivan, Russel Gerald, Treasure Janet Dodge Liz .â€Å"Psychological Therapies for Adults with Anorexia Nervosa.† British Journal of Psychiatry, 178 (2001): 216-221. DeAngelis Tori, 2002. â€Å"A Genetic Link to Anorexia†. Monitor on Psychology 33(2002), 34-37. Halmi, Katherine A. â€Å"The Multimodal Treatment of Eating Disorders†. World Psychiatry 4(2005): 69-73. Kay e Walter H., Bulik Cynthia M., Thornton Laura, Barbarich Nicole, Masters Kim and the Price Foundation Collaborative Group. â€Å"Co-morbidity of Anxiety Disorders with Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa†. American Journal of Psychiatry 161 (2004): 2215-2221. Mehler, Philip S. â€Å"Diagnosis and Care of Patients with Anorexia Nervosa in Primary Care Settings.† Annals of Internal Medicine 134(2001):1048-1059. Naqvi, Syed. â€Å"Review of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.† Focus 2 (2004):529-540. Palmer, B. â€Å"Come the Revolution. Revisiting the Management of Anorexia Nervosa.† Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 12 (2006):5-12. Papadopoulos Fotios C, Ekbom Aders, Eselius Lisa Brandt Lena. â€Å"Excess Mortality, Causes of Death and Prognostic Factors in Anorexia Nervosa.† British Journal of Psychiatry 194 (2009): 10-17. Ramsay Rosalind, Ward Anne, Treasure Janet Russel Gerald F. M. â€Å"Compulsary Treatment in Anorexia Nervosa. Short Term Benefits and Long Term Mortality.† British Journal of Psychiatry 175 (1999): 147-153. Rumney, Avis. Dying to please: anorexia, treatment and recovery. Jefferson, N.C. : McFarland, 2009. Steiner Hans, Mazer Cliff Litt Iris F. â€Å"Compliance and Outcome in Anorexia Nervosa†. West J Med 153 (1990): 133-139. Swain, Pamela I., Scaglius, Fernanda Baeza., Balfour, Louise., and Hany Bissada. Anorexia Nervosa And Bulimia Nervosa: New Research. New York: Nova Biomedical Books, 2006. Wade Tracey D., Bulik Cynthia M., Neale Michael, and Kendler Keneth S. â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa and Major Depression: Shared Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors†. Am J Psychiatry 157 (2000):469-471. Footnotes Attia Evelyn, Walsh B. Timothy. â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa†. American Journal of Psychiatry 164 (2007), 1805-1810. Dare Chris, Isler Ivan, Russel Gerald, Treasure Janet Dodge Liz. â€Å"PsychologicalTherapies for Adults with Anorexia Nervosa.† British Journal of Psychiatry 178 (2001): 216-221. DeAngelis, Tori. â€Å"A Genetic Link to Anorexia.† Monitor on Psychology 33 (2002), 34-37. Steiner Hans, Mazer Cliff Litt Iris F. â€Å"Compliance and Outcome in Anorexia Nervosa†. West J Med 153 (1990): 133-139. Wade Tracey D., Bulik Cynthia M., Neale Michael, and Kendler Keneth S. â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa and Major Depression: Shared Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors†. Am J Psychiatry 157 (2000), 469-471. Mehler, Philip S. â€Å"Diagnosis and Care of Patients with Anorexia Nervosa in Primary Care Settings’. Annals of Internal Medicine 134(2001):1048-1059. Swain, Pamela I., Scaglius, Fernanda Baeza., Balfour, Louise., and Hany Bissada. Anorexia Nervosa And Bulimia Nervosa: New Research. New York: Nova Biomedical Books, 2006. Papadopoulos Fotios C, Ekbom Aders, Eselius Lisa Brandt Lena. â€Å"Excess Mortality, Causes of Death and Prognostic Factors in Anorexia Nervosa.† British Journal of Psychiatry 194 (2009): 10-17. Ramsay Rosali nd, Ward Anne, Treasure Janet Russel Gerald F. M. â€Å"Compulsary Treatment in Anorexia Nervosa. Short Term Benefits and Long Term Mortality.† British Journal of Psychiatry 175 (1999): 147-153. Steiner Hans, Mazer Cliff Litt Iris F. â€Å"Compliance and Outcome in Anorexia Nervosa†. West J Med 153 (1990): 133-139. Papadopoulos Fotios C, Ekbom Aders, Eselius Lisa Brandt Lena. â€Å"Excess Mortality, Causes of Death and Prognostic Factors in Anorexia Nervosa.† British Journal of Psychiatry 194 (2009): 10-17. Mehler, Philip S., 2001. â€Å"Diagnosis and Care of Patients with Anorexia Nervosa in Primary Care Settings.† Annals of Internal Medicine 134(2001):1048-1059. Rumney, Avis. Dying to please: anorexia, treatment and recovery. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2009. Palmer, B. â€Å"Come the Revolution. Revisiting the Management of Anorexia Nervosa.† Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 12 (2006):5-12. Bell, Rudolph M. Holy anorexia. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Naqvi, Syed. â€Å"Review of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.† Focus 2 (2004):529-540. Halmi Katherine A. 2005. â€Å"The Multimodal Treatment of Eating Disorders†. World Psychiatry 4, no. 2 (2005): 69-73. Dare Chris, Isler Ivan, Russel Gerald, Treasure Janet Dodge Liz . â€Å"Psychological Therapies for Adults with Anorexia Nervosa.† British Journal of Psychiatry 178 (2001): 216-221. Attia Evelyn, Walsh B. Timothy, 2007. â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa†. American Journal Psychiatry 164 (2007): 1805-1810. Kaye Walter H., Bulik Cynthia M., Thornton Laura, Barbarich Nicole, Masters Kim and the Price Foundation Collaborative Group. â€Å"Comorbidity of Anxiety Disorders with Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa†. American Journal of Psychiatry 161 (2004): 2215-2221.

The Lords Baltimore and Their Impact on American History

The Lords Baltimore and Their Impact on American History Baron, or Lord, Baltimore is a now  extinct title of nobility in the Peerage of Ireland. Baltimore is an Anglicization of the Irish phrase baile an thà ­ mhà ³ir e, which means town of the big house.   The title was first created for Sir George Calvert in 1624. The title became extinct in 1771 after the death of the 6th Baron.  Sir George and his son, Cecil Calvert, were British subjects rewarded with land in the new world.   Cecil Calvert was the 2nd Lord Baltimore. It is after him that the Maryland city of Baltimore is named after. Thus, in American history, Lord Baltimore usually refers to Cecil Calvert. George Calvert George was an English politician who served as  Secretary of State  to King James I. In 1625, he was given the title Baron Baltimore when he resigned from his official position.​ George became invested in the colonization of the Americas. While initially for commercial incentives, George later realized colonies in the New World could become a refuge for English Catholics and a place for religious freedom in general. The Calvert family was Roman Catholic, a religion which most inhabitants of the New World and followers of the Church of England were prejudiced against. In 1625, Geroge publicly declared his Catholicism. Involving himself with colonies in the Americas, he was at first rewarded with a title to land in Avalon, Newfoundland in present-day Canada. To expand on what he already had, George asked the son of James I, Charles I, for  a royal charter to settle the land north of Virginia. This region would later become the state of  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Maryland. This land was not signed over until 5-weeks after his death. Subsequently, the charter and land settlement was left to his son, Cecil Calvert. Cecil Calvert Cecil was born in 1605 and died in 1675. When Cecil, second Lord Baltimore, founded the colony of Maryland, he expanded on his fathers ideas of freedom of religion and separation of church and state. In 1649, Maryland passed the  Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion. This act mandated religious tolerance  for Trinitarian Christians only. Once the act was passed, it became  the first law establishing a religious tolerance in British North American colonies. Cecil wanted  this law to also  protect Catholic settlers and others who  did not conform to the established state  Church of England.  Maryland, in fact, became known as a haven for Roman Catholics in the New World. Cecil governed Maryland for 42 years. Other Maryland cities and counties honor Lord Baltimore by naming themselves after him. For instance, there is Calvert County, Cecil County, and Calvert Cliffs.

How did Karl Marx view America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

How did Karl Marx view America - Essay Example The USA during the life of Karl Marx was a rapidly developing capitalist country, but social antagonisms were not as clear in the USA as they were in the UK during the life of Karl Marx. But in general the views of Marx about Great Britain and the USA are the same, as the last one turned into economical giant and the strongest economy of the world already at the beginning of the twentieth century. American society based on democratic values and free market relations is a classic capitalist society according to Karl Marx. America's one of the fundamental values is a property right, and protection of private property is one of the central goals of the USA system. Marx made an excellent job in studying the origins of the state, family, private property, the evolution of social relations and social formations. He brilliantly explained the nature and origins of economical relations from the point of view of political economy. Arguing that capitalist relations were unjust because the producers (workers) didn't have the means of production and had no property rights on the products they were producing because means of production were the property of capitalists and bourgeoisie, Marx made a prediction that capitalist formation will be changed by a new just and fair social formation with no private property- formation of communism. He characterized capitalist relations as follows: "Bourgeois productive relations... That's why bourgeois social formation ends the prehistory of human society."( Marx 1992:21) Marx considered the ruling class to be the class that had the means of production in his property. In his works talking about dominating class he mentioned bourgeoisie, but mainly bankers and industrial magnates. Small business, engineers, teachers, clerks considered to be the class of philistines and were the main support of big bourgeoisie. Oppression was characterized basically by the fact that bourgeoisie had all the essential means of production, capital, power, ideologists, police, judicial system and periodicals. The oppressed class by Karl Marx was proletariat. He didn't rely in the social revolution on peasants as they were considered to be property owners and were more attached to capitalist, market relations as workers, because they had private property. Peasants had some property rights and were defended by law, as they were among the main producers of agricultural goods. The working class got its democratic rights only nominally. In the 1850ies democracy was just developing and it was on the initial stage of the development and it had a form of formal democracy. People who were told that they've got something but in fact had nothing considered they to be out of share, its human psychology. The desire to have the promised rights stimulated unrest in the circles of workers. Liberty, equality and the demand for education rights were the basic demands of workers. Criticizing unjust and unequal conditions of living of workers and bourgeoisie Marx made an assumption that capitalist relations will be replaced once by another form of social and economical

Digital Equity Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Digital Equity - Assignment Example For this reason, the provision of free laptops or home computers has a little help in reducing the academic gap between the haves and the have-nots. From a research conducted by Pew, students in rural areas spend up to $80 per month on internet connection while those in the urban areas spend $36 per month. Although these figures might be small for the rich, the poor cannot afford such expensive connection. Consequently, they have limited access to information, class notes, and often late with their assignment completion and submission. The solution for educational gap does not depend on internet access but rather on the educational policies. The government should introduce a program to ensure that each student has equal access to educational materials regardless of their financial status. Your assertion that technology is an important instrument in facilitating the access to educational material and a communication tool where educators can distribute learning material to the student is compelling. In addition, your acknowledgment that limited access to the internet due to high connection prices provides the reality of the matter as it affects the poor students. Finally, the proposal you make to ensure all students complete and submit their assignment on time shows a high level of consideration. Specifically, this is because you have considered the situation of various students within the society and offered a solution that can help in improving their academic

Human factors and ergonometric Essay Example for Free

Human factors and ergonometric Essay Injuries and as well as illnesses are usual things in the workplace and back injuries is said to be about 20% of it. Around 20 to 50 billion dollars are also estimated to be lost because of back injuries per year. Due to the seriousness of the problem and its economic costs, companies are implementing different ways such as the use of back belts in order to reduce if not totally eliminate back injury cases. Today, most workers are depending on back belts, also known as back support in order to protect themselves from back injuries that may happen in the workplace. There had been some claims that the use of back belts reduces the force on the spine and increase intra-abdominal pressure that counters the force exerted on the spine. It is also said that back belts also stiffen the spine and restrict bending motion. It also helps in reminding the wearer to lift properly and thus, reduces injuries specifically back injuries in the workplace. However, according to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and health or NIOSH, these claims lack scientific support and the validity and truthfulness of these claims cannot be proven. Studies done by the NIOSH also asserts that the difference in back injury incidence between those who use back belts and those who do not have no statistical significance. NIOSH also added that the strongest risk factor is the history of back injury and that the rate of having back injury of those who have history of having back injury is almost twice as the rate of workers without back injury history. Results of the study also shows that through comparing the injury claims and as well as self-reported cases failed to show any significant difference that is associated with the use of back belts even for employees who does the most strenuous type of jobs. Thus, NIOSH does recommend the use of back belts in order to reduce the cases of back injuries in the workplace. Still, although the use of back belts lack scientific evidences that it lessen the cases or the risk of having back injuries there is also no concreter evidence that will totally prove that using back belt have no effect in the performance and safety of the workers and so I will still recommend the use of back belts in the work place to reduce such cases. It would be better than using nothing at all and it may also improve the performance of the workers because they will that the company does care for their needs and safety. In order to guard the safety of the workers against back injuries any gadget is not enough. The best way to really reduce if not totally get away with back injuries is through ergonomics program that will help the workers not just to ensure their safety but as well to maximize their capabilities. Such program may include the assessment of all work activities. This is to make sure the every task in the company can be done without exceeding the worker’s physical capabilities. It is also important to provide a surveillance program that will identify any musculoskeletal problems that are potentially work related cases. Knowing those problems that may occur in the workplace will help the workers to really be cautious in certain types of works wherein the problems may originate. A medical management program is also needed as well as to monitor the workers condition and health to ensure that the workers are in good condition and to prevent not just back injury cases but other injuries and illnesses as well. Preventing the case before it is even able to develop is still the best way to eliminate such cases. Another important step that must be taken is to have a comprehensive training for all workers regarding lifting mechanics and as well techniques not just to be able to do the job better but also to do the job in a safely manner. This is not just for those who are newly hired by the company but also for those who had been working in the company for a long time. The proper ways and techniques especially in lifting are very important to prevent cases of back injuries. The use of back may not have sufficient scientific basis for its effectiveness is reducing back injury cases but there is also no concrete evidence that will disprove the claims. Also, using back belts may not just help the company regarding the issue of back injuries but it may be able to help the company in other ways. Through the use of back belts and right practice, the cases of back injuries in the work place can surely be avoided. References CCOHS. (10, November 2005). Back belt. Retrieved January 11, 2008 from http://www. ccohs. ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/back_blt. html NIOSH. (10, June 1997). Back belts do they prevent injury? Retrieved January 11, 2008 from http://www. cdc. gov/Niosh/backbelt. html NIOSH. (February 2001). Back belts. Retrieved January 11, 2008 from http://www. cdc. gov/niosh/backfs. html.

Business Ownership Types :: essays research papers

There are different types of ownership within the business sector. Sole tradership is when the business is fully owned and managed by one person, though others can be employed to help run the business. As the sole traders only financial income is from the business and/or bank loan, they do not have the resources to expand and cover regional or national areas. These types of businesses are located in the small business sector and usually cover local areas. Such businesses could be hairdressers, corner shops or market stalls etc. Sole traderships have unlimited liability so if the business fails to pay its debts the financial responsibility falls on the owner/s to pay the debts in full even if they have to sell their business, personal possessions and assets. Another example of business ownership is a partnership. Examples of partnerships used in business are accounting firms and solicitors firms. A partnership has two or more owners. They work, manage and are responsible for the running of the business. Individual partners may concentrate on a certain aspect of the business where they have expert knowledge. As there is more than one owner, larger amounts of capital can be fed into the business via personal funding or bank loans. Partnerships have an unlimited liability. There are two types of limited companies: Private and public. Shareholders own private limited companies. Members of the public cannot buy the shares and the shareholders cannot buy or sell their shares without agreement from the other shareholders. Family owned businesses or larger businesses such as Virgin would fit into this category. Public limited companies have shares on the stock market and can be bought and sold by any member of the public, this way the company can raise further capital and expand their resources. Tesco and British Telecom are such examples. Both these types of limited companies have limited liability, which means the owners of the business are only liable for the amount they invested in the business (unless the debt is so large that the business has to be sold to repay the debt). Co-operatives are companies that are owned by a group of people (members) who have shares in the company. Shares can start as little as  £1 and each member has a share in the Co-operative. It is the members (shareholders) who finance the co-operative and they control on how the business and profits are run.

Inflation and Unemployment

Macroeconomics help Name: Institution: Inflation is the rise in general prices of goods and services over a specific period of time. Unemployment is a state where people are able and willing to work at the ongoing market prices of labor but they are unable to secure a Job. According to the Phillips curve, there is a consistent relationship between inflation and unemployment (Nevi, J. W. 1981, peg 3). When the rate of unemployment is low, the level of inflation is high and when the level of employment is high, inflation level is low.Since majority of the Americans regard inflation to be a bigger threat than unemployment, they will ether stay unemployed but to let the value of a dollar stabilize. Therefore they will rather be employed during stable prices than rising prices. The Americans favor unemployment to inflation. When 10% of the workers are laid off, it will imply that unemployment will increase and an Increase in unemployment Implies a decrease In inflation. If the wages are r educed by 5%, it will mean that even more worker can be employed due to the reduction of labor cost.This will lead to an Increase In employment thus the level of unemployment will go down. A decrease In unemployment leads to an increase In level of inflation. Therefore they will rather go for 10% of workers being laid off than a 5% cut In their wages. They will vote for 10% workers being laid off. Their knowledge of who will be laid off won't affect their decision in voting because they are all against Inflation. They will rather not work than work for a wage with low purchasing power. Therefore they are after their purchasing power than Just a Job.Fiscal policy Is an attempt to manipulate government expenditure and taxation so as to affect aggregate demand and aggregate supply to achieve full employment and price stability. Monetary policy Is a policy that affects money growth (Landing, F. K. 2009, peg 34). Therefore when the government uses monetary policy, the money supply will I ncrease. The government will cut taxes to treat the deficit. When the Fed will prevent growth In reserves, It Implies that the borrowing will be constant thus no preventions on borrowing from commercial banks.This will result to an Increase In money supply as the government too Is borrowing. According to the ELM curve, when the two polices are used, at the point where the Interest rate Is low, monetary policy has no power. When fiscal policy Is used, Increase In supply of money has no effect on the Interest rate. Therefore when the IS-ELM equilibrium Is low, fiscal policy Is the suitable policy to use. When the Fed Increase the supply of alienable funds through and expansion of commercial banks, the supply of money will Increase at the same ongoing Interest rate.The Fed will not succeed to prevent the Interest rates from rising. Interest rate Is assumed to be flexible according to the classical economists. This Implies that the Interest rate will rise In order to attain the previous equilibrium. Therefore a lower Interest rate trap as advocated by the Keynesian economist is where inflation will be set. When he economic resources are idle, the output is always low. The reason the government will borrow will be to stimulate the economy. Inflation and Unemployment INTRODUCTIONInflation seems to be a chronic problem in many parts of the world today and unemployment, a phenomenon, true for Pakistan, and valid for United States and other western economies. Even the fastest growing Chinese economy is not totally immune to it. Thus this research project deals with the analysis of unemployment and inflation in Pakistan. The purpose of this research is to analyze the relationship that exists between these two macroeconomic variables, which affect every nation as well as an individual.The Phillips curve shows a historical inverse relation between the rate of unemployment and the rate of inflation in an economy. It is the trade-off between inflation and unemployment (Mankiw, 2002). The lower the unemployment in an economy, the higher the rate of change in wages paid to labor in that economy.LITERATURE REVIEWThe relationship between unemployment and inflation the two macroeconomic variables is usually summarized by the Phillips curve. Different studies have been conducted related to these variables in order to see whether any relationship between these two macroeconomic variables exists or not. While analyzing the trade-off between inflation and unemployment in Asia, (Dua 1996), takes inflation as the function of expected inflation, unemployment gap/ output gap, exchange rate, import inflation and oil price inflation. In India and Philippines the tradeoff between inflation and unemployment does not exist, whereas, in Japan, Korea, Singapore, and Hong Kong it does. (Rafael, MacCulloch, & Oswald 2000), on the other hand, suggest that welfare  and life satisfaction level is a function of inflation and unemployment and people are happier when rates of both are low.However unemployment in comparison with inflation depresses people more than inflation. Thus while controlling country fixed-effects, year effects, and time trends, it is estimated that people will trade 1% increase in unemployment for 1.7% increase in inflation. A strong positive relation between unemployment rate and inflation rate lagged one or two years is also shown, which is inconsistent with both Philips curve and NAIRU. In other words the trade-off between inflation and unemployment rate does not exist, except in the same year, and in the long run unemployment is a positive function with inflation (Niskanen 2002). Namibia, using the time series data from 1991-2005, exhibits the presence of stagflation in its economy.In other words he found increase in both inflation and unemployment at the same time, which contradicts the traditional short-run Philips curve (Ogbokor 2005). (Furuoka 2007) using the data of Malaysia from 1975-2004 shows and existence of co-integrated as well as casual relationship between inflation and unemployment. That is the study provides an empirical evidence to support the Philips curve.Likewise, Philips curve also exists in Japan, with negative coefficients of linear link between inflation and unemployment. Also there is a generalized linear and lagged relationship between labor force, unemployment and inflation in Japan, which is confirmed by the fact that the driving force behind unemployment and inflation is the change rate of labor force level (Kitov 2007). In this paper, a Philips curve with linear link will be calculated for Pakistan to see if the negative relationship between the variables exists or not.Problem Statement: What is the likely relationship between inflation and unemployment in Pakistan? Hypothesis: If unemployment increases, then inflation decreases.Data Source: Secondary data for the purpose of this research has been obtained from the year 2000-2011. The data on unemployment rate (percentage of total labor force) and inflation rate (general not adjusted for food and energy) for Pakistan, has been taken from the Economic Survey of Pakistan.ObjectiveThe objective of this research is to determine the relationship between inflation and unemployment for the economy of Pakistan. Phi lips curve is based on the equation where unemployment is the function of inflation.METHODOLOGYHere, a regression is run for inflation rate and unemployment rate for Pakistan. The functional form of the model which is as follows: Y = ÃŽ ²ÃŽ ¿ + ÃŽ ²1X1 + ЄSubstituting the above inflation function in the equation INFt = ÃŽ ²ÃŽ ¿ + ÃŽ ²1Ut + Єt Where U is the unemployment rate and INF is inflation rate for a given time â€Å"t†. The Equation obtained after running the OLS model is: INFt = 30.96981 – 3.306067 UtDependent Variable: INFMethod: Least SquaresDate: 08/01/13 Time: 21:49Sample: 1 12Included observations: 12Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.C 30.96981 6.078158 5.095263 0.0005 U -3.306067 0.882942 -3.744377 0.0038R-squared 0.583686 Mean dependent var 8.549167 Adjusted R-squared 0.542055 S.D. dependent var 5.344512 S.E. of regression 3.616718 Akaike info criterion 5.560023 Sum squared resid 130.8065 Schwarz criterion 5.640841 Log likelihood - 31.36014 Hannan-Quinn criter. 5.530101 F-statistic 14.02036 Durbin-Watson stat 2.038825 Prob(F-statistic) 0.003819While interpreting the regression line, the negative sign with the coefficient of unemployment shows that in Pakistan Inflation and unemployment are inversely related at â€Å"t† period. One percent increase in unemployment in one year will bring a decrease in inflation of 3.306067 percent. Unemployment in this simple regression model is statistically significant as the probability of t-stats is less than 0.05 and so we reject H0. The intercepted value 30.96981 of B0 shows the inflation rate when unemployment is zero. The R2 for this model, which lies between 0 and 1, comes out to be 0.583686 which shows that 58.36 percent of the variation in inflation is explained by unemployment.The adjusted R2 statistics comes out to be 0.542055. The Durbin-Watson d statistics test, which is done for autocorrelation, is 2.038825 for Pakistan, showing that there is no auto or se rial correlation. As this is simple regression model multicollinearity is not present. As the probability of F-stat is less than 0.05 we will reject H0 which means that the model is overall statistically significant. The Scatter Plot for Inflation and Unemployment somehow depicts the same relationship as above.CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONThis study is conducted in order to make an analysis of inflation and unemployment in Pakistan from year 2000-2010. It has employed a simple regression analysis technique. The main conclusion derived from this study is that the tradeoff between these two variables, the Philips Curve, is observed in Pakistan. When unemployment is high, the cost of goods will increase during an inflationary period, but firms will be able to hire cheap labor, as labor will be in surplus.Wages will not rise while unemployment remains high. Workers will have to borrow money or reduce the amount of goods they purchase. If workers cannot get loans, firms will have to lower prices to continue to sell products, thus reducing inflation. This study makes the following recommendation in the light of its analysis. Easy fiscal policy can be used to decrease unemployment at the expense of inflation, as mild inflation is desirable in every economy. However in Pakistan the inflation rate is much higher than the unemployment rate. Thus Pakistan has to focus more on policies which lead to reduction in inflation but the  Government should also control unemployment at the same time.

To Kill a Mocking Bird Speech

To Kill a Mocking Bird Speech We as white people in 2010 treat black people as equal as we treat another white person. Back in the 1930s this wasn’t the case. Prejudice towards black people was happening almost everywhere, especially in the state of Alabama. This was where Harper Lee had decided to base her novel To Kill a Mocking Bird. She wrote this book to show the people the racism, discrimination and prejudice towards black people. My setting is based during the aftermath. I refer to the Anti-climax of the story.The climax was court case of Tom Robinson where he was charged with raping a white girl. Even know that they had lost the case, the Anti-climax continues the story to either sub-plots being resolved as well as a second climax appearing. Atticus one of the main characters and Tom Robinsons lawyer thought that he won by convincing the people of Maycomb to understand the prejudice of black people during the case. Miss Maudie claims that Atticus is one of few people w ho can change the views of the residents in Maycomb.The questions about Boo Radley are finally answered in the sub plot chapter 24. Boo Radley is not black, but the residence treats like one. However, in the second climax that he finally appears and saves Scout and Jem from Mr Ewell. The most common technique used was Symbolism. The title the novel to kill a mocking bird symbolises the common black person and that they are harmless. It takes time until Jem understands this but he finally realises this after the death of Tom Robinson.By this point Jem finally recognises the black prejudice people use and that he despises Boo Radley for no reason. This made him seem like another racist man. Mr Ewell was portrayed as the bad guy of the story, He possibly beat up his daughter, He attacking Atticus’s children and spat in Atticus’s face. He basically represents a figure of prejudice in the story, and Atticus attempts to fight against it. The anti-climax was to be interesting because although Tom is dead, we see how everyone reacts to it. Thank you for listening.

The Scarlet Letter4 essays

The Scarlet Letter4 essays The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorn begins by dealing with Hester Prynnes crime and sentence. She shows herself to be a proud woman in how she embroiders her bright red A with golden thread to be displayed to her community. She is a skilled seamstress and she doesnt seem, despite her disgrace, to be afraid to show that about herself. When she walked down the street from the prison to the scaffold, the narrator talks about her realization of how foolish and cowardly she would be if she were to try to hide her mark with the product of her sin, her baby girl. She carries off her initial sentence of being showcased on the scaffold with as much dignity as possible for anyone in such a situation. The reactions of the people were interesting to me; their strong feelings against Hester being permitted to live startled me. I realized what a sort of culture and religion ruled in those times. Also, I couldnt quite imagine being in Hesters position with the kind of disgrace she was f aced with. The narrator describes Hester as totally losing her womanly appeal and beauty over the seven years of condemnation. Roger Chillingworth confused me greatly until near the conclusion of the book. When he visited Hester I was surprised that he wanted to treat her instead of trying to harm her, but then later realized his motives. He wanted no one in the community to learn that there was any relationship between Hester and himself at all; harming her would have raised suspicions. This was vital to his plan of revenge on Mr. Dimmesdale. At first I thought that Chillingworth might have tried to seek revenge against Hester, but then came to the conclusion that he viewed her public disgrace as more punishment than he could ever have managed. Chillingworths revenge ...

A Brief History of the Pledge of Allegiance

A Brief History of the Pledge of Allegiance The U.S. Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag was written in 1892 by then 37-year-old minister Francis Bellamy. The original version of Bellamy’s pledge read, â€Å"I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic, for which it stands,- one nation, indivisible- with liberty and justice for all.† By not specifying to which flag or which republic allegiance was being pledged, Bellamy suggested that his pledge could be used by any country, as well as the United States. Bellamy wrote his pledge for inclusion in the Boston-published Youths Companion magazine – â€Å"The Best of American Life in Fiction Fact and Comment.† The pledge was also printed on leaflets and sent to schools throughout the United States at the time. The first recorded organized recital of the original Pledge of Allegiance took place on Oct. 12, 1892, when some 12 million American school children recited it to commemorate the 400-year anniversary of the voyage of Christopher Columbus. Despite its widespread public acceptance at the time, important changes to the Pledge of Allegiance as written by Bellamy were on the way. Change In Consideration of Immigrants By the early 1920s, the first National Flag Conference (source of the U.S. Flag Code), the American Legion, and the Daughters of the American Revolution all recommended changes to the Pledge of Allegiance intended to clarify its meaning when recited by immigrants. These changes addressed concerns that since the pledge as then written failed to mention the flag of any specific country, immigrants to the United States might feel that they were pledging allegiance to their native country, rather than the U.S., when reciting the Pledge. So in 1923, the pronoun â€Å"my† was dropped from the pledge and the phrase â€Å"the Flag† was added, resulting in, â€Å"I pledge allegiance to the Flag and Republic, for which it stands,- one nation, indivisible- with liberty and justice for all.† A year later, the National Flag Conference, in order to completely clarify issue, added the words â€Å"of America,† resulting in, â€Å"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands,- one nation, indivisible- with liberty and justice for all.† Change in Consideration of God In 1954, the Pledge of Allegiance underwent its most controversial change to date. With the threat of Communism looming, President Dwight Eisenhower pressed Congress to add the words â€Å"under God† to the pledge.   In advocating for the change, Eisenhower declared it would â€Å"reaffirm the transcendence of religious faith in America’s heritage and future† and â€Å"strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country’s most powerful resource in peace and war.† On June 14, 1954, in a Joint Resolution amending a section of the Flag Code, Congress created the Pledge of Allegiance recited by most Americans today: â€Å"I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.† What About Church and State? Over the decades since 1954, there have been legal challenges to the constitutionality of the inclusion of â€Å"under God† in the pledge. Most notably, in 2004, when an avowed atheist sued the Elk Grove (California) Unified School District claiming that its pledge recital requirement violated his daughter’s rights under the First Amendment’s Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses. In deciding the case of Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, the U.S.  Supreme Court failed to rule on the question of the words â€Å"under God† violating the First Amendment. Instead, the Court ruled that the plaintiff, Mr. Newdow, did not have legal standing to file the suit because he lacked sufficient custody of his daughter. However, Chief Justice William Rehnquist and Justices Sandra Day O’Connor and Clarence Thomas wrote separate opinions on the case, stating that requiring teachers to lead the Pledge was constitutional. In 2010, two federal appeals courts ruled in a similar challenge that â€Å"the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the Establishment Clause because Congress’ ostensible and predominant purpose was to inspire patriotism† and â€Å"both the choice to engage in the recitation of the Pledge and the choice not to do so are entirely voluntary.†Ã‚   Pledge of Allegiance Timeline September 18, 1892: Francis Bellamy’s pledge is published in â€Å"The Youths Companion† magazine to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America. October 12, 1892: The pledge is first recited in American schools.  Ã‚   1923: The original wording â€Å"my Flag† is replaced by â€Å"the flag of the United States of America.† 1942: The pledge is officially recognized by the U.S. government. 1943: The U.S. Supreme Court rules that requiring a person to say the pledge is a violation of the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution.   June 14, 1954: At the request of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Congress adds â€Å"under God† to the pledge. 1998: Atheist Michael Newdow files suit against the school board of Broward County, Florida to get the phrase under God removed from the pledge. The suit is dismissed. 2000: Newdow files a lawsuit against Elk Grove Unified School District in California arguing that forcing students to listen to the words under God† is a violation of the First Amendment. The case reaches the Supreme Court in 2004, where it is dismissed. 2005: Joined by parents in the Sacramento, California, area, Newdow files a new lawsuit seeking to have the phrase under God from the Pledge of Allegiance. In 2010, the 9th Circuit US Court of Appeals denies Newdow’s appeal finding that the pledge does not represent a government endorsement of religion, as prohibited by the Constitution. May 9, 2014: The Massachusetts Supreme Court rules that because reciting the Pledge of Allegiance is a patriotic, rather than a religious, exercise, saying the words â€Å"under God† does not discriminate against atheists.

Middle aged women and their health (this is for a womens health class) Annotated Bibliography

Middle aged women and their health (this is for a womens health class) - Annotated Bibliography Example This was changed to have a focus on what could be accomplished in everyday life at a moderate level. This article, researching physical activity, was conducted using questionnaires and interviews. There were 2, 341 participants. This study was not considered experimental since it did not require the use of a control group. Since this study was based on self-reporting from the participants, there is always the concern of the accuracy of the results. I would suggest repeating the study using a smaller number of participants and conducting it in a supervised setting. One thought would be to have the participants video themselves while cleaning to monitor the time spent, the level of activity and the number of days a week. The fact that the results were totally based on statements from the participants automatically leads to questions of accuracy. This article focused on bone density. The authors conducted research to determine if long term estrogen use has an effect on bone density. The research showed that it takes at least seven years of estrogen use after menopause in order to make a positive impact on bone density levels. It is questionable whether or not estrogen has any effect on women 75 years old and older. This research project had two distinct groups of participants; those taking estrogen and those who did not. This study could be considered experimental in that there was a control group and the results were compared between the two groups. The only component that is dependent upon the participants is the actual taking of the estrogen. This, however, can be verified through medical testing. The results were determined through the medical testing of bone density, so I consider the results of this research more valid that the previous study. An important factor about this study is the length of time that a women must take the estrogen in order for it to be effective in